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65 C H A P T E R 4 Age- Related Macular Degeneration and Other Causes of Choroidal Neovascularization This chapter includes a related activity. Go to www.aao.org/bcscactivity_section12 or scan the QR code in the text to access this content. Highlights • Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of permanent vision loss worldwide. It has 2 late-stage manifestations, which may coexist: a nonneo- vascular form known as geographic atrophy and a neovascular form characterized by the presence of macular neovascularization, previously known as choroidal neovascularization. • Risk factors for AMD may be nonmodifiable (eg, age) or modifiable (eg, cigarette smoking and low micronutrient intake). • According to multiple genome-wide association studies, gene tic factors account for at least 55% of total AMD risk, and the pathway most consistently implicated in AMD is the complement cascade. • Anti‒vascular endothelial growth factor agents are the mainstay of treatment for exudative AMD and are typically administered using 1 of 3 broad approaches: fixed-interval dosing, as-needed dosing, or treat-and-extend dosing. • In addition to AMD, multiple reti nal pathologies may lead to ...